FPU is "Floating Point Unit". And on an x87 FPU, I think there's an instruction called fsin, (and another called fcos) which can find the sine and cosine of angles. I'm sure cmath or math.h use those internally usually, but I'm not completely sure.
Just last clarification: the fact that it's an FPU instruction means it is done in hardware, like with transistors :) So there will be no explicit code for that in standard library.
I think you may find the code you look for if you search for something like "cos c++ Taylor series" - it may be out there somewhere.